The introduction of modernism in Indian art occurred during the British colonial period, when a dialogue began between European art perspectives and Indian artistic traditions. During this time, art served not only for aesthetics but also as a medium for social and and political change.
1. Introduction of Modernism in India
British Influence and Art Schools: The British established art schools in Lahore, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in the 19th century, promoting academic and naturalistic (realistic) European styles. They believed that Indians were inept at fine arts.
Rise of the Bengal School: In response, Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell founded the 'Bengal School of Art', which sought to revive Indian art.
Contribution of Santiniketan: In 1919, Rabindranath Tagore established 'Kala Bhavan' in Santiniketan, aiming to make art meaningful to Indian society.
New Dimensions:
Gaganendranath Tagore adopted Cubism.
Rabindranath Tagore gave a new direction with emotional abstract paintings.
Nandalal Bose and his disciples Binode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij depicted rural life and Indian epics in their style.
Ramkinkar Baij's 'Santhal Family' is an example of his social concerns.
Jamini Roy drew inspiration from folk art to create his simple yet distinctive style, connecting rural culture with modernity.
Amrita Sher-Gil, educated in Paris, created a unique combination of European modernity and traditional Indian subjects, giving a new direction to Indian modern art.
2. Modern Ideology and Political Art in India
Background (World War II and Bengal Famine): Following Amrita Sher-Gil's death and around the time of India's independence in 1947, events like World War II and the 1943 Bengal Famine affected millions. This tragedy inspired artists to depict social reality.
Formation of the Calcutta Group (1943):
Leadership: Sculptor Prodosh Das Gupta.
Key Members: Nirode Mazumdar, Paritosh Sen, Gopal Ghose, and Rathin Moitra.
Objective: To develop a modern art that depicted the truth of the times, was free from sentimentality, and differed from the traditional style of the Bengal School of Art.
Style and Characteristics of the Art:
Abandonment of old symbols and traditions.
More emphasis on elements like form, color, texture, and shading.
A serious attempt to connect art with society and view it in a social context, rather than limiting it to aesthetics.
Ideology and Socialism:
Young artists from Bengal were influenced by Marxist ideology.
Art was used as a medium to highlight class struggle and social inequality.
Prominent subjects included the working class, hunger, suffering, and social injustice.
Development of Printmaking:
Printmaking was adopted to make art affordable and accessible to more people.
Chittaprosad specialized in etching, linocut, and lithography.
Somnath Hore powerfully depicted social suffering.
'Hungry Bengal' Pamphlet:
The Communist Party of India sent Chittaprosad to villages affected by the 1943 Bengal Famine.
His sketches and drawings were published in a booklet titled 'Hungry Bengal', which serves as a historical record of the horrific situation.
3. Progressive Artists' Group of Bombay and Versatile Indian Art
Formation (1946): Around the time of independence, the 'Progressive Artists' Group' was formed in Bombay.
Key Artists: Included artists such as Francis Newton Souza, M.F. Husain, and S.H. Raza.
F.N. Souza: Challenged traditional art education, experimenting with subjects related to women and breaking traditional notions of beauty.
M.F. Husain: Combined modern style and Indian elements, drawing inspiration from Indian mythology, miniature paintings, and folk art. His art, such as 'Mother Teresa', came to represent Indian modernity.
4. Abstraction - A New Concept
Husain and Raza's Different Paths:
M.F. Husain: Adopted a figurative style, depicting Indian subjects through modern shapes and colors.
S.H. Raza: Worked in the direction of Abstraction, becoming famous for his landscape paintings. Later, he made the 'Bindu' (dot) the central element of his art, symbolizing the unity and fundamental consciousness of creation in Indian philosophy.
Other Artists' Styles:
Gaitonde: India's first fully abstract painter, who expressed deep inner feelings through color, texture, and form.
K.K. Hebbar, Akbar Padamsee, Tyeb Mehta, and Krishna Khanna: Worked by balancing figuration and abstraction.
Pilloo Pochkhanawala and Krishna Reddy: Made creative use of abstraction in printmaking and sculpture.
Cholamandal Artists' Village and the Expansion of Abstraction:
K.C.S. Paniker: Founded the Cholamandal Artists' Village near Madras, which became India's first autonomous artist community.
Vision: Did not limit abstraction to Western influence but connected it with Indian tradition.
Elements Included: Tamil and Devanagari scripts, traditional floor decorations, and rural crafts.
Internationalism vs. Indigenous Art (After 1970):
Internationalism: Artists adopted Western styles like Cubism and Abstraction.
Indigenous Art: Returned to Indian traditions.
Amar Nath Sehgal: Used metal wire in his sculptures to address social issues; famous work is 'Cries Unheard'.
Mrinalini Mukherjee: Made a new contribution to abstraction using jute and natural fibers in works like 'Vanashree', combining folk craft with modern expression.
The Concept of Neo-Tantric Art:
Artists: Biren De, G.R. Santosh, and Paniker.
Inspiration: Although inspired by the Western hippie movement, its roots were in Indian Tantric philosophy.
Subjects: Used Tantric symbols like mandalas, yantras, and male-female energy.
Eclecticism:
Artists: Ram Kumar, Satish Gujral, A. Ramachandran, and Meera Mukherjee.
Characteristic: Presented a creative blend of traditional, modern, and foreign styles in Indian art, developing a rich and diverse artistic language.
Group 1890:
Leadership: J. Swaminathan (in 1963).
Ideology: Had no predetermined ideology, with a special emphasis on the texture, surface, and experimentation of paintings.
Members: Gulammohammed Sheikh, Jyoti Bhatt, Himmat Shah, Ambadas, and Jeram Patel.
Impact: Despite being short-lived, it influenced several institutions like the Cholamandal School.
5. Analysis of Modern Indian Art (Tracing)
Identity and Direction: Although some ideas were adopted from the West, the identity and direction of modern Indian art remained distinctly Indian.
Arrival of Modernism: Arrived during the British colonial period when artists challenged traditional academic realism.
Key Artists (1930s): Gaganendranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, and Amrita Sher-Gil were considered modern.
European vs. Indian Modernity:
In Europe: Flourished after the Industrial Revolution and technological development.
In India: Was linked with nationalism and cultural identity.
Rebellious Approach: Adopted by artists like F.N. Souza and Swaminathan.
Indigenous Idea: Promoted by Ananda Coomaraswamy.
Bengal School and Santiniketan: Abanindranath Tagore, and later Nandalal Bose and other disciples, drew inspiration from Indian traditions to forge a uniquely Indian identity for modern art.
Conclusion: Modern art in India was not an imitation of the West but a result of selective cultural reinvention.
6. New Art Forms and Modern Art of the 1980s
Social Concerns and Subject Matter:
After the 1971 Indo-Pak War and the liberation of Bangladesh, Indian artists paid more attention to social problems.
Narrative and identifiable figures now emerged in art, directly depicting the common people, struggles, and social reality.
Art became a medium for social sensibility, not just for aesthetics.
Key Artists and Their Contributions:
Baroda School: K.G. Subramanyan, Gulammohammed Sheikh, and Bhupen Khakhar gave a place to social stories and urban experiences.
Artists of Bengal: Jogen Chowdhury, Bikash Bhattacharjee, and Ganesh Pyne adopted the style of folk art, calendars, and miniature paintings.
Printmakers: Jyoti Bhatt, Laxma Goud, and Anupam Sud highlighted gender inequality and social problems through human and animal figures.
Urban Migration and New Subjects:
Artists: Arpita Singh, Nalini Malani, and Sudhir Patwardhan.
Subjects: The difficulties of ordinary people living in cities, migration, and poverty.
Objective: To show the world from the perspective of the oppressed and to bring social injustice and inequality to the forefront.
The Baroda School and Change (1980s):
Artists' inclination turned towards local subjects.
They created paintings by combining facts, imagination, and autobiography.
Gulammohammed Sheikh: Adopted visual compositions inspired by old bazaars, streets, and the Sienese style of Italy.
K. G. Subramanyan and Public Art:
Educated at Santiniketan.
Was a strong supporter of murals and public art.
Used the sand casting technique learned from Rajasthani artists to create several murals.
Key Example: His mural on the wall of Kala Bhavan.
'Place for People' (1981) Exhibition:
A historic exhibition held in Delhi and Bombay.
Artists: Bhupen Khakhar, Gulam Sheikh, Vivan Sundaram, Nalini Malani, Sudhir Patwardhan, and Jogen Chowdhury.
Interpretation: Art critic Geeta Kapur called it a significant example of a social and political perspective in Indian contemporary art.
Bhupen Khakhar's Uniqueness:
Made the lives of ordinary people the center of his art (everyday characters like barbers, watchmakers).
Sensitive Subjects: Also addressed socially neglected topics like homosexuality and middle-class morality in his art.
Return of Folk and Popular Art:
Baroda Artists: Established a connection with popular culture by adopting popular styles like folk craft, truck art, and calendar paintings.
Mumbai Artists: Drew inspiration from film hoardings, advertisements, and photography to make their art more urban, visual, and contextually relevant.
New Techniques and Style:
Used watercolors to create lifelike figures, like photographs.
Different from traditional "modern art," with a more experimental and ambiguous expression.
7. New Media Art - From the 1990s
The Period After the 1990s:
The impact of liberalization and globalization was seen in major cities like Mumbai and Delhi.
Rapid development of information technology, changes in social and family structures.
New responses, modern subjects, and global contexts were increasingly incorporated into art.
Change in Traditional Mediums:
The appeal of traditional painting and sculpture diminished.
New Mediums: Video art, photography, and Installation Art were adopted, making art more experimental and contemporary.
Characteristics of Installation Art:
A multimedia art form that combines various mediums like video, painting, sculpture, photography, and television.
Spreads across an entire hall or space.
Objective: To give the viewer a collective experience involving all five senses (an opportunity to see, participate, and feel).
Key Installation Artists:
Nalini Malani (Mumbai) and Vivan Sundaram (Delhi).
Subjects: Serious and thought-provoking issues like social injustice, feminism, war, displacement, and political instability.
Photography and 'Photorealism':
Photography was considered an influential medium for showing social reality.
Photorealism: Artists create paintings with oil or acrylic colors that look as precise as photographs.
Key Example: Atul Dodiya's work "Bapu".
Key Photorealist Artists:
T.V. Santhosh and Shibu Natesan.
Subjects: Burning issues of society like communal violence and urban change.
Artists Depicting Marginalized Groups:
Sheba Chhachhi, Ravi Agarwal, and Atul Bhalla.
Subjects: Female ascetics, the LGBTQ community, polluted rivers, and crowded cities.
Characteristics of Contemporary Art:
Constantly changing and technologically powerful.
New Media: Effective use of digital painting, video art, and social media.
Has become more interactive, global, and connected to the audience.
Development of Contemporary Art in India:
Art galleries and artist communities are active in all major cities.
Documentation, exhibition, and international recognition of works through catalogs.
8. Key Modern Indian Artworks
The Life of Medieval Saints (1946-47) - Binode Behari Mukherjee:
Medium: Mural (fresco buono method).
Location: On three walls of Hindi Bhavan (approximately 23 meters).
Subject: Teachings of great saints like Ramanuja, Kabir, Tulsidas, and Surdas.
Style: Use of minimal lines, each figure rhythmically connected to one another. Expresses the tradition of tolerance and harmony in Indian life.
Mother Teresa (1980s) - M.F. Husain:
Subject: The saintly image of Mother Teresa, holding a child in her arms.
Inspiration: Inspired by Michelangelo's work 'Pietà'.
Style: Flat shapes signify modernity; the artist used symbols so the viewer could understand the essence of the story themselves. It points to Mother Teresa's care and nourishment of the helpless.
Haldi Grinder (1940) - Amrita Sher-Gil:
Subject: Indian women traditionally grinding turmeric.
Colors and Style: Use of bright and muted colors, inspired by European modern art and the miniature painting style of North India.
Artistry: The figures are delineated by contrasting colors (reminiscent of the Basohli style). Semi-abstract form, depicting flat shapes rather than depth of landscape.
Fairy Tales from Purva Palli (1986) - K. G. Subramanyan:
Medium: Use of water and oil colors on an acrylic sheet.
Subject: An imaginary landscape where birds and animals walk shoulder to shoulder with humans, and unusual trees grow feathers instead of leaves.
Style: Linear, with natural color combinations (gray, green, and brown).
Inspiration: The figures of men and women are reminiscent of Kalighat folk art; the figures are arranged on a flat surface (representing modern art).
Whirlpool (1963) - Krishna Reddy:
Medium: Print (example of the viscosity printing method), developed with Stanley William Hayter.
Color: An attractive combination of different shades of blue; colors do not blend into each other.
Subject: Depicts the waves of water and the interaction between water and oil.
Technique: Different colors are mixed with linseed oil so that the colors remain separate.
Collection: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Children (1958) - Somnath Hore:
Medium: Graphic print (etching).
Subject: The effects of the 1943 Bengal Famine, the tragedy of famine-stricken children, malnourished figures, deep suffering, and signs of malaria.
Style: Figures are vividly rendered in lines without a background or environment, with bones and body structure clearly visible.
Symbolism: Represents the most vulnerable section of society. Other works (Peasants Meeting and Mother with Child) also have sensitive subjects.
Devi (1970) - Jyoti Bhatt:
Medium: Etching.
Subject: Recontextualizes the image of the goddess through folk tradition and Tantric philosophy.
Style: The bust of the goddess as an idol, with clear linear markings and folk motifs.
Artistry: A gentle connection between traditional arts and modernity, with Shakti (power) as a principle of dynamism and permanence.
Other Famous Paintings: "Kalpavriksha," "Sita's Parrot," and "Scattered Images Under the Warm Sky."
Of Walls (1982) - Anupam Sud:
Medium: Etching print (printed on paper from a zinc plate).
Background: Studied printmaking at the Slade School of Fine Art, artistically presenting the problems of marginalized people.
Subject: Depicts sadness and sorrow through the empty facial expression of a woman. A woman sits alone on a sidewalk, with a sleeping poor person in the foreground.
Emotion: Expresses a deep sense of despair.
Rural South Indian Men-Woman (2017) - Laxma Goud:
Medium: Etching print.
Inspiration: From the experimental visual traditions of his teacher K.G. Subramanyan and classical folk culture.
Subject: Human figures are inscribed in the background with a tree, memories of rural life.
Style: Rural life presented with urban sophistication, depicting realistic elements with a blend of psychological aura and imagination.
Artistry: Rural songs are depicted by peasant men and women, puppet-like figures, with stylistic gentleness and realism.
Other Key Works: "Woman," "Men," "Landscape of Turkey," and "Xian China."
Triumph of Labour (1959) - Devi Prasad Roy Chowdhury:
Medium: Gigantic bronze sculpture.
Location: Installed on the Marina beach in Chennai.
Subject: Four male figures attempting to move a rock, showing the importance and contribution of human labor in nation-building.
Artistry: Invincible men are struggling with natural power with determination and resolve. Devi Prasad had a special fascination for the nature of labor and muscles; a precise depiction of the difficulty of physical labor. The strong muscles, veins, and musculature of the workers are accurately portrayed.
Characteristic: The figures are composed in such a way that viewers can walk around the sculpture to see it from all sides, making it interactive. It elevates the contribution of workers by placing it on a high pedestal in a public space, unlike traditional statues of kings or British dignitaries.
Santhal Family (1937) - Ramkinkar Baij:
Medium: Gigantic sculpture (using cement).
Subject: A Santhal man carrying his children in a double basket tied to a pole, along with his wife and a dog. Depicts a migration journey.
Location: Placed in the Kala Bhavan campus in Santiniketan.
Significance: India's first modern public sculpture. Viewers can see it from all sides, creating a monumental effect.
Choice of Material: Use of cement, which is different from traditional materials (marble, wood, stone) and symbolizes modernization.
Cries Unheard (1958) - Amar Nath Sehgal:
Medium: Bronze sculpture.
Subject: Three abstract figures (stick-like and flat rhythmic planes) that can be understood as a family (husband, wife, and child), shown with their arms raised and crying for help.
Symbolism: Has given permanent form to the need for help and helplessness. Can be seen from a socialist perspective, a tribute to the millions of helpless families whose cries go unheard.
Collection: National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi.
Ganesha (1970) - P.V. Janakiram:
Medium: Oxidized copper sculpture.
Subject: The figure of Ganesha playing the musical instrument veena.
Technique: Used copper metal sheet, hammered to create a concave surface, and welded linear details.
Inspiration: Inspired by the ancient temple sculptures of South India.
Style: In accordance with traditional scriptures and subjects, linear and decorative elements invite religious contemplation. A perfect blend of folk and traditional craftsmanship.
Collection: NGMA, Delhi.
Vanashree (1994) - Mrinalini Mukherjee:
Subject: A sculptural work titled 'Vanashree' (Goddess of the Forest).
Material: Unusual materials, specifically made from jute fibers and natural fibers.
Style: Monumental form through complex knots and woven shapes.
Artistry: Has carved out the powerful presence of a natural deity with a face and an inner expression.
Significance: Her works made of fibers have recently earned special recognition for their originality and courage.
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