Later Mural Traditions: Practice Questions and Answers
20 One-Liner Questions
Question: What was the capital of the Badami dynasty? Answer: Early Chalukya Dynasty.
Question: Which deity's image is consecrated in Badami Cave No. 4? Answer: Vishnu.
Question: Why was Pallava King Mahendravarman I called 'Chitrakarapuli'? Answer: Due to his deep interest in art activities.
Question: In which famous Jain cave are paintings from the Pandya period found? Answer: Sittanavasal.
Question: What color were the outlines of the figures painted in the Sittanavasal paintings? Answer: Vermilion red.
Question: In which century did the masterpieces of Chola art and architecture emerge? Answer: Eleventh century.
Question: Under the reign of which Chola king was the Brihadeswara Temple in Thanjavur built? Answer: Rajaraja Chola.
Question: How many layers of paintings were found in the Brihadeswara Temple? Answer: Two.
Question: What was the capital of the Vijayanagara Dynasty? Answer: Hampi.
Question: Which epic narratives are found in the paintings of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi? Answer: Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Question: In what pose are the faces shown in the Lepakshi paintings? Answer: Profile.
Question: In which centuries are paintings of the Nayaka Dynasty found? Answer: Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries.
Question: On what themes are the Nayaka period paintings in Tiruparankundram based? Answer: Incidents from the life of Mahavira, Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Krishna-leela.
Question: From which dance tradition did the painters of Kerala draw inspiration? Answer: Kathakali.
Question: 'Kalam Ezhuthu' is a ritualistic floor painting from which state? Answer: Kerala.
Question: How are human figures depicted in Kerala paintings? Answer: In three-dimensionality.
Question: Name three palaces in Kerala known for murals. Answer: Dutch Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram Palace (Kayamkulam), and Padmanabhapuram Palace.
Question: Which traditional mural painting is practiced in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat? Answer: Pithoro.
Question: What is the famous painting style in the Mithila region of Northern Bihar? Answer: Mithila Painting.
Question: Name a rural mural painting prevalent in Maharashtra. Answer: Warli Painting.
20 Very Short Answer Questions
Question: Who patronized the excavation of Badami Cave No. 4? Answer: Chalukya King Mangalesha.
Question: Which feature of the king and queen's faces in Badami paintings reminds one of the Ajanta style? Answer: Their beautifully drawn faces and modeling style resemble Ajanta, where eyes are half-closed and lips are protruding.
Question: What were the three titles given to Pallava King Mahendravarman I that show his interest in art? Answer: Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), and Chaityakari (temple builder).
Question: Which Pallava period paintings remain in the Kanchipuram temple? Answer: Traces of paintings depicting Somasakanda (Shiva with Uma and Skanda).
Question: Which dancing figures are seen in the Sittanavasal paintings? Answer: Dancing figures of celestial nymphs.
Question: What is a distinctive feature of the eyes of figures in Sittanavasal paintings? Answer: The eyes are slightly elongated and sometimes appear to protrude from the face.
Question: Who built the temples of Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Darasuram during the Chola period? Answer: Rajaraja Chola, his son Rajendra Chola, and Rajaraja Chola II respectively.
Question: Which period does the upper layer of paintings in the Brihadeswara Temple belong to, and who painted it? Answer: The upper layer is from the Nayaka period (sixteenth century).
Question: Which forms of Lord Shiva are included in the subject matter of the Brihadeswara Temple paintings? Answer: Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, and Shiva as Nataraja.
Question: What is the subject matter of the paintings in the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi during the Vijayanagara period? Answer: Depiction of events from the dynasty's history and episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Question: How are figures depicted in the Vijayanagara paintings of Lepakshi? Answer: Faces are in profile, and figures and objects are presented two-dimensionally.
Question: What was the physical build of male figures in Nayaka period paintings? Answer: Male figures had slender waists but less heavy stomachs compared to Vijayanagara figures.
Question: From which periods are paintings found in Tiruparankundram? Answer: Paintings from two distinct periods: the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Question: In which temple are 60 panels depicting the story of the Ramayana found in Nayaka paintings? Answer: In the Sri Krishna Temple located in Chengam, Arcot District.
Question: What kind of colors did Kerala painters use in their paintings? Answer: Vibrant and luminous colors.
Question: What is the main source of the subject matter for Kerala murals? Answer: Episodes from Hindu mythology that were popular in Kerala, along with oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Question: Name any two palaces in Kerala with murals. Answer: Dutch Palace in Kochi and Krishnapuram Palace in Kayamkulam.
Question: What are two sites of the mature phase of mural painting tradition in Kerala? Answer: Pundarikapuram Krishna Temple and Panayanarkavu.
Question: Who still paints murals in rural homes today? Answer: Usually women.
Question: For what purpose is wall painting done in the villages of Odisha or Bengal? Answer: During ceremonies or festivals, or as a routine for cleaning and decorating walls.
10 Short Answer Questions
Question: Describe the stylistic features of Badami paintings and how they are an extension of the Ajanta tradition. Answer: The Badami paintings, particularly those found in Cave No. 4, represent a significant extension of the Ajanta mural painting tradition. The paintings here feature curved drawn lines, fluid forms, and well-organized compositions, showcasing the proficiency and maturity of artists in the sixth century CE. The faces of the king and queen recall the modeling style of Ajanta, where eye sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are protruding. Artists were able to create volume through simple line treatment, making the raised structures of the face emerge. This is evidence of the artistic heritage of Ajanta being carried to South India.
Question: What was the contribution of Pallava King Mahendravarman I to art? What were the main characteristics of the paintings of his time? Answer: Pallava King Mahendravarman I (seventh century) was a great patron of art. He built temples in Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram. Inscriptions like the Mandagapattu record refer to him with titles such as 'Vichitrachitta' (curious-minded), 'Chitrakarapuli' (tiger among artists), and 'Chaityakari' (temple builder), reflecting his deep interest in art. Paintings were also done in these temples under his initiative, though only fragments remain. At Panamalai, a female deity figure is beautifully drawn. The surviving Somasakanda paintings in Kanchipuram show round and large faces, and rhythmic lines, with increased ornamentation compared to earlier periods. The depiction of the torso resembles sculptural tradition but is more elongated.
Question: Highlight the main stylistic features of the Pandya period paintings of Sittanavasal. Answer: The Sittanavasal paintings are important examples of the Pandya art tradition, found on the ceilings of temple garbhagrihas, verandas, and brackets. In these paintings, the outlines of figures are firmly drawn and colored in vermilion red against a light background. The body is presented in yellow with subtle modeling. The flexible limbs of the dancers, expressions on faces, and rhythm in the swaying movement demonstrate the artists' creative imagination and skill in conceiving forms within an architectural context. A unique feature is that their eyes are slightly elongated and sometimes appear to protrude from the face, a characteristic also found in many later paintings of the Deccan and South India.
Question: Discuss the discovery and significance of Chola period paintings in the Brihadeswara Temple. Answer: Chola period paintings, especially in the Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, are extremely significant. These paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) of the temple. When discovered, two layers of paintings were found: the upper layer belonged to the Nayaka period (sixteenth century), while the lower layer was from the Chola period. After careful cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the great Chola painting tradition emerged. These paintings include narratives related to Lord Shiva (such as Shiva in Kailash, Tripurantaka, Nataraja), portraits of the patron Rajaraja Chola and his guru Kuruvar, and dancing figures. These paintings demonstrate the stylistic maturity achieved by the artists over years of development.
Question: What were the main characteristics of Vijayanagara murals and how did they differ from previous styles? Answer: Vijayanagara murals (fourteenth-sixteenth centuries) developed a distinct pictorial language. Excellent examples are found in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Shiva Temple at Lepakshi. In these paintings, faces are shown in profile, and figures and objects are presented two-dimensionally. Lines are firm but fluid, and compositions appear in linear compartments. Figures have narrow waists and large, frontal eyes. This differed from previous styles, where more emphasis was placed on three-dimensionality and realism. In the Vijayanagara style, narrative simplicity and specific symbolism were more prominent.
Question: Describe the subject matter and stylistic features of the Nayaka dynasty paintings. Answer: Nayaka dynasty paintings (seventeenth-eighteenth centuries) are primarily found at sites in Tamil Nadu such as Tiruparankundram, Srirangam, and Tiruvarur. Their subject matter includes episodes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as scenes from Krishna-leela. In some places, stories related to the life of Mahavira and Shiva-Vishnu are also found (e.g., Bhikshatana Murti and Mohini in Chidambaram). Stylistically, Nayaka paintings are an extension of the Vijayanagara style, but with some minor regional modifications. Figures are mostly in profile and placed against a flat background. Male figures have slender waists but less heavy stomachs compared to Vijayanagara figures. Artists strive to enhance movement and make the space dynamic.
Question: What are the unique features of the Kerala mural painting tradition? How do they differ from other South Indian styles? Answer: Kerala painters (sixteenth to eighteenth centuries) developed their own distinct pictorial language and technique, adopting some elements from Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles but adapting them to their local context. They drew inspiration from contemporary traditions such as Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu (ritualistic floor painting of Kerala). They use vibrant and luminous colors and present human figures with three-dimensionality. In terms of subject matter, Kerala paintings are based on episodes from Hindu mythology that were particularly popular in Kerala, and artists often drew inspiration from oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. This localization and vibrant color scheme differentiate them from other South Indian styles.
Question: What is the significance of the murals from the Badami, Pallava, and Pandya periods in the history of Indian art? Answer: The murals from the Badami, Pallava, and Pandya periods are a crucial link in Indian art history, as they demonstrate the continuity and development of the painting tradition after Ajanta. Badami paintings show the extension of the Ajanta style into South India. Pallava period paintings, especially under the patronage of Mahendravarman I, reflect royal interest in art and depict religious and courtly scenes. Pandya period paintings from Sittanavasal are significant for their distinct style (red outlines, yellow bodies, elongated eyes) and their portrayal of Jain themes. All these paintings attest to the existence of a rich and developed mural tradition in Southern India, which later formed the basis for the Chola and Vijayanagara styles.
Question: What is the importance of the surviving sites for reconstructing the painting tradition after Ajanta? Answer: After Ajanta, very few sites have surviving paintings. The importance of these sites, such as Badami, Panamalai, Sittanavasal, Brihadeswara, Virupaksha (Hampi), Lepakshi, and the temples/palaces of Kerala, lies in the fact that they provide valuable evidence of the continuously evolving tradition of Indian painting. They help us understand how various regional styles, political patronage, and religious subject matters shaped painting. These sites demonstrate techniques, stylistic changes, and regional specificities beyond Ajanta, making it possible to reconstruct a detailed history of Indian mural painting.
Question: Provide a brief description of the contemporary rural and haveli mural painting tradition. Answer: Even today, a vibrant tradition of mural painting persists on the inner and outer walls of homes in villages and havelis across different parts of India. These paintings are typically done by women, either during special ceremonies and festivals, or as a routine for cleaning and decorating walls. These traditional forms include 'Pithoro' in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, 'Mithila painting' in the Mithila region of Northern Bihar, 'Warli paintings' in Maharashtra, or general wall paintings in villages of Odisha, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, or Chhattisgarh. These paintings depict local folklore, religious beliefs, and scenes from daily life, representing a continuous and living artistic heritage.
10 Essay Questions
Question: Provide a detailed analysis of the development of the mural painting tradition in South India from Badami to Kerala, highlighting the contributions and stylistic characteristics of each dynasty (Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Chola, Vijayanagara, Nayaka, Kerala). Answer: This essay should depict the development of mural painting in South India as a gradual process. Begin with Badami (Chalukya), discussing the extension of the Ajanta tradition and early South Indian characteristics. Then highlight the contributions of the Pallavas (Mahendravarman I's interest, Panamalai, Kanchipuram) and Pandyas (Sittanavasal's unique style, protruding eyes). Describe the Chola period as a culmination, specifically emphasizing the hidden paintings of the Brihadeswara Temple and their narrative and stylistic maturity. Analyze the distinct pictorial language (profile faces, two-dimensional presentation, linear compositions) and subject matter of the Vijayanagara (Hampi, Lepakshi) and Nayaka (Tiruparankundram, Tiruvarur) periods. Finally, shed light on the unique style of Kerala murals, local influences (Kathakali, Kalam Ezhuthu), and vibrant colors, demonstrating how each dynasty made its distinct contribution to this tradition.
Question: How did the Ajanta painting tradition extend to Badami and Sittanavasal? Compare the major stylistic similarities and differences between the paintings of these two sites. Answer: In this essay, establish Ajanta as the foundation of mural painting. Discuss the paintings of Badami (faces of king and queen, fluid forms, curved lines) and show how they retained the modeling style of Ajanta but brought it to South India. Elaborate on the paintings of Sittanavasal, including their distinctive red outlines, yellow bodies, and the characteristic elongated, sometimes protruding eyes. Similarities could include narrative style, religious subject matter, and mastery in depicting figures. Differences would involve the more direct connection to Ajanta in Badami versus the regional adaptations and stylistic peculiarities (like eye depiction) in Sittanavasal. Conclude by presenting these sites as important successors to the Ajanta tradition that evolved with regional innovations.
Question: Why is Chola period painting significant in the history of Indian art? Explain in detail with reference to the paintings of the Brihadeswara Temple. Answer: This essay should present the Chola period as a significant phase in South Indian art. Consider the paintings of the Brihadeswara Temple (Thanjavur) as the most important example of Chola painting. Highlight the discovery of these paintings and the significance of finding them in two layers (Nayaka and Chola periods). Describe in detail the subject matter of the Chola period paintings (various forms of Lord Shiva, portraits of Rajaraja and Guru Kuruvar, dancing figures). Emphasize their stylistic maturity: the flow of curved lines, the supple modeling of figures, and the elongation of physical features. Explain how these paintings represent the perfection achieved by Chola artists and a phase of artistic transition, which grants them a unique place in Indian art history.
Question: Conduct a comparative study of the characteristics of South Indian painting under the Vijayanagara and Nayaka dynasties. Which common stylistic traditions were shared, and what regional modifications were made? Answer: In this essay, introduce the Vijayanagara (fourteenth-sixteenth centuries) and Nayaka (seventeenth-eighteenth centuries) painting styles. Discuss the main characteristics of Vijayanagara paintings (profile faces, large frontal eyes, narrow waists, two-dimensional presentation, linear compositions), using examples from Hampi and Lepakshi. Then describe the characteristics of Nayaka paintings, showing how they were an extension of the Vijayanagara style. Highlight common stylistic traditions, such as profile faces and flat backgrounds. Discuss regional modifications, such as the less heavy stomachs of male figures in Nayaka paintings and the attempts to enhance movement. In conclusion, clarify the continuity and subtle evolution between these two styles.
Question: How do Kerala murals differ from other South Indian painting styles? Describe their subject matter, technique, and artistic influences in detail. Answer: In this essay, emphasize the uniqueness of Kerala murals (sixteenth-eighteenth centuries). Explain how they developed their own distinct pictorial language despite adopting elements from Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles. Discuss their sources of artistic inspiration, such as Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu. Highlight their use of vibrant and luminous colors and the technique of presenting human figures with three-dimensionality. In terms of subject matter, Kerala paintings focus specifically on Hindu mythological episodes popular locally, with artists often drawing inspiration from oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Consider this localization and vibrant color scheme as the main reason for their distinction from other South Indian styles.
Question: How did narrativity evolve in Indian painting in the post-Ajanta era? Explain with examples from various sites. Answer: In this essay, briefly mention the foundation of narrativity in Ajanta (grouping events by geography). Then discuss the narrative presentation of palace scenes and dance episodes in Badami paintings. Highlight the narrative flow in Sittanavasal with Jain tales and dancing celestial nymphs. Focus on the detailed narratives related to Shiva (Shiva in Kailash, Tripurantaka, Nataraja) in the Brihadeswara Temple during the Chola period. Illustrate the use of narrativity in depicting episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and dynastic history during the Vijayanagara period (Hampi, Lepakshi). Conclude by highlighting the continuity and diversity of narrativity through the depiction of Krishna-leela, Ramayana, local versions of Mahabharata, and other mythological tales in Nayaka and Kerala paintings.
Question: How did the change in the role of patronage in Indian painting (from collective public to political) affect the development of art? Discuss in the context of paintings after the Post-Mauryan period. Answer: In this essay, briefly mention the role of public and collective patronage (e.g., merchants, artisans) in the early historical period. Then, focus on the increasing dominance of political patronage (e.g., Chalukya, Pallava, Chola, Vijayanagara, Nayaka rulers) after the Post-Mauryan period, especially after the sixth century CE. Discuss how this shift influenced the development of art: the emergence of larger and grander royal projects, increased depiction of royal themes, art becoming a symbol of rulers' power and religious affiliation, and the incorporation of a specific royal taste into artistic styles. Also, consider whether this change impacted artistic freedom in any way.
Question: What has been the significance of local traditions and folk art in Indian mural painting? Explain with examples of contemporary rural murals. Answer: In this essay, highlight the deep impact of local and folk traditions in Indian mural painting, which was not limited to just royal or religious art. Discuss how these traditions have been a source of inspiration for artists for centuries. Pay special attention to examples of contemporary rural murals, such as 'Pithoro' from Rajasthan/Gujarat, 'Mithila' from Bihar, 'Warli' from Maharashtra, and general wall paintings in villages of Odisha/Bengal. Demonstrate how these paintings depict local folklore, customs, religious beliefs, and daily life. Also, mention how these paintings are often done by women and are associated with ceremonies, festivals, and home decoration, making them a part of a vibrant and continuous artistic heritage.
Question: What has been the significance of bodily postures like 'Tribhanga' and 'Profile' in Indian painting? Explain these concepts with examples from paintings of various dynasties. Answer: In this essay, define bodily postures like 'Tribhanga' (three-bends pose) and 'Profile' as stylistic characteristics of Indian painting. Discuss the significance of 'Tribhanga', which imparts movement, grace, and vitality to figures, illustrating its use in sites like Sittanavasal. Then, focus on the development of the 'Profile' pose, which became a distinctive feature of Vijayanagara and Nayaka period paintings (e.g., Hampi, Lepakshi). Explain how these postures were not merely artistic techniques but also means to add emotionality, narrativity, and symbolism to the depiction of figures. Use examples from paintings of different dynasties to show how the use of these postures evolved and varied across regional styles.
Question: How did the depiction of color, line, and volume evolve over time in Indian mural painting? Explain with examples from Ajanta to the Nayaka period. Answer: In this essay, begin with the early paintings of Ajanta, where color use was limited and lines were clear, but volume was primarily depicted through form rather than shading. Discuss the fluidity of lines and the method of creating volume in Badami. Focus on the specific use of colors (vermilion red outlines, yellow bodies) and the depiction of expressions through elongated eyes in Sittanavasal. Highlight the maturity achieved in the Chola period through the flow of lines and the supple modeling of figures. Discuss the relatively flat application of colors, the firmness of lines, and the two-dimensional depiction of figures in the Vijayanagara and Nayaka periods. Demonstrate how artists experimented with color, line, and volume over time, creating a unique pictorial identity for each period and region.
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